The Last Mughal: The Fall of Delhi, 1857

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Jahangir (born Salim, [51] reigned 1605–1627) was born to Akbar and his wife Mariam-uz-Zamani, an Indian Rajput princess. [52] Salim was named after the Indian Sufi saint, Salim Chishti. [53] [54] He "was addicted to opium, neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques". [43] Jahangir distinguished himself from Akbar by making substantial efforts to gain the support of the Islamic religious establishment. One way he did this was by bestowing many more madad-i-ma'ash (tax-free personal land revenue grants given to religiously learned or spiritually worthy individuals) than Akbar had. [55] In contrast to Akbar, Jahangir came into conflict with non-Muslim religious leaders, notably the Sikh guru Arjan, whose execution was the first of many conflicts between the Mughal empire and the Sikh community. [56] [57] [58] Group portrait of Mughal rulers, from Babur to Aurangzeb, with the Mughal ancestor Timur seated in the middle. On the left: Shah Jahan, Akbar and Babur, with Abu Sa'id of Samarkand and Timur's son, Miran Shah. On the right: Aurangzeb, Jahangir and Humayun, and two of Timur's other offspring Umar Shaykh and Muhammad Sultan. Created c. 1707–12 The Mughal Empire followed the Sunni Hanafi system of jurisprudence. In its early years, the empire relied on Hanafi legal references inherited from its predecessor, the Delhi Sultanate. These included the al-Hidayah (the best guidance) and the Fatawa al-Tatarkhaniyya (religious decisions of the Emire Tatarkhan). During the Mughal Empire's peak, the Fatawa 'Alamgiri was commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb. This compendium of Hanafi law sought to serve as a central reference for the Mughal state that dealt with the specifics of the South Asian context. [98] Michael, Bernardo A. (2012). Statemaking and Territory in South Asia. Anthem Press. p.69, 75, 77-78. doi: 10.7135/upo9780857285324.005. ISBN 978-0-85728-532-4. Charles T. Evans. "The Gunpowder Empires". Northern Virginia Community College. Archived from the original on 26 May 2011 . Retrieved 28 December 2010. Copland, Ian; Mabbett, Ian; Roy, Asim; etal. (2013). A History of State and Religion in India. Routledge. p.119. ISBN 978-1-136-45950-4.

Mughal influence on Indian music". The Hindu. 8 February 2000. Archived from the original on 26 December 2019 . Retrieved 5 April 2019. Streusand, Douglas E. (2011). Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. a b Jeffrey G. Williamson (2011). Trade and Poverty: When the Third World Fell Behind. MIT Press. p.91. ISBN 978-0-262-29518-5. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 . Retrieved 15 August 2017. Robb, Peter (2011). A History of India. Macmillan International Higher Education. p.98. ISBN 978-0-230-34424-2.a b c Conermann, Stephan (4 August 2015), "Mughal Empire", Encyclopedia of Early Modern History Online, Brill, doi: 10.1163/2352-0272_emho_com_024206, archived from the original on 26 March 2022 , retrieved 28 March 2022 Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire. [103] A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators begun to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco. [103]

The Bengal Subah province was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 until the British East India Company seized control in 1757. [140] Historian C. A. Bayly wrote that it was probably the Mughal Empire's wealthiest province. [141] Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks, and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks. [130] From Bengal, saltpeter was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan. [10] However, by this time Lodi's empire was already crumbling, and it was actually the Rajput Confederacy which was the strongest power of Northern India under the capable rule of Rana Sanga of Mewar. He defeated Babur in the Battle of Bayana. [46] However, in the decisive Battle of Khanwa which was fought near Agra, the Timurid forces of Babur defeated the Rajput army of Sanga. This battle was one of the most decisive and historic battles in Indian history, as it sealed the fate of Northern India for the next two centuries. Dyson, Tim (2019), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-256430-6, We have seen that there is considerable uncertainty about the size of India's population c.1595. Serious assessments vary from 116 to 145 million (with an average of 125 million). However, the true figure could even be outside of this range. Accordingly, while it seems likely that the population grew over the course of the seventeenth century, it is unlikely that we will ever have a good idea of its size in 1707. That said, we do know that the main concentrations of people were in the core Mughal provinces i.e. Lahore, Delhi, Agra, Awadh, and Allahabad. It was their high rural densities that ultimately sustained the main cities with all of their complexity and culture. There were, of course, sizeable rural populations supporting substantial, if lesser, urban centres elsewhere—for example in Gujarat, and on rivers like the Kaveri and the Godavari. Moreover, there were major concentrations of people on both the coastal plains. Irfan Habib; Dharma Kumar; Tapan Raychaudhuri (1987). The Cambridge Economic History of India (PDF). Vol.1. Cambridge University Press. p.214. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2017 . Retrieved 5 August 2017.Smith, Vincent Arthur (1917). Akbar the Great Mogul, 1542–1605. Oxford at The Clarendon Press. pp.13–14. The development of Mughlai cuisine, an amalgamation of South Asian, Iranian and Central Asian culinary styles. The historian Nizamuddin Ahmad (1551–1621) reported that, under Akbar's reign, there were 120 large cities and 3200 townships. [149] A number of cities in India had a population between a quarter-million and half-million people, [149] with larger cities including Agra (in Agra Subah) with up to 800,000 people, Lahore (in Lahore Subah) with up to 700,000 people, [154] Dhaka (in Bengal Subah) with over 1 million people, [155] [ full citation needed] and Delhi (in Delhi Subah) with over 600,000 people. [156]

Robb, Peter (2011), A History of India, Macmillan International Higher Education, pp.97–98, ISBN 978-0-230-34424-2 Rein Taagepera (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia". International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3): 475–504. doi: 10.1111/0020-8833.00053. JSTOR 2600793. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018 . Retrieved 6 July 2019. Sinopoli, Carla M. (1994). "Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals". Asian Perspectives. 33 (2): 294. ISSN 0066-8435. JSTOR 42928323. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022 . Retrieved 11 June 2021.Soucek, Priscilla (1987). "Persian Artists in Mughal India: Influences and Transformations". Muqarnas. 4: 166–181. doi: 10.2307/1523102. JSTOR 1523102. Singhal, Damodar P. (1983). A History of the Indian People. Methuen. p.193. ISBN 978-0-413-48730-8. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023 . Retrieved 4 May 2021. Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, pp.115–, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7, archived from the original on 22 September 2023 , retrieved 15 July 2019 The jagirdar (local tax collector) was another kind of official approached, especially for high-stakes cases. Subjects of the Mughal Empire also took their grievances to the courts of superior officials who held more authority and punitive power than the local qadi. Such officials included the kotwal (local police), the faujdar (an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers), and the most powerful, the subahdar (provincial governor). In some cases, the emperor themself dispensed justice directly. [97] Jahangir was known to have installed a "chain of justice" in the Agra Fort that any aggrieved subject could shake to get the attention of the emperor and bypass the inefficacy of officials. [101]

The Mughal administration emphasised agrarian reform, which began under the non-Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri, the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised in a hierarchical manner on the basis of merit, with promotions based on performance. [123] The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production. [103] A Long History of Urdu Literary Culture, Part 1: Naming and Placing a Literary Culture", Literary Cultures in History, University of California Press, pp.805–863, 2019, doi: 10.1525/9780520926738-019, ISBN 978-0-520-92673-8, S2CID 226765648, archived from the original on 22 September 2023 , retrieved 26 July 2021 Audrey Truschke (2021). the Language of History:Sanskrit Narratives of Indo-Muslim Rule. Publisher:Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-55195-3. Archived from the original on 3 April 2023 . Retrieved 19 March 2023. a b Sinopoli, Carla M. (1994). "Monumentality and Mobility in Mughal Capitals". Asian Perspectives. 33 (2): 294–295. ISSN 0066-8435. JSTOR 42928323. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022 . Retrieved 11 June 2021. Islam: Mughal Empire (1500s, 1600s)". BBC. 7 September 2009. Archived from the original on 13 August 2018 . Retrieved 13 June 2019.

The title (Mirza) descends to all the sons of the family, without exception. In the royal family it is placed after the name instead of before it, thus, Abbas Mirza and Hosfiein Mirza. Mirza is a civil title, and Khan is a military one. The title of Khan is creative, but not hereditary. [5]